Feasts

Soldiers

Parades

ANNOUNCEMENTS:

• ByFriday 1/25 -
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  • discussion groups email Imber the time and place of their meetings
  • Book Report 1 from students whose last name begins with I-O due. A word about my expectations about your written work.
  • Discussion Groups meet this week. Your first DGR is due at 9:00 am in my email box on Monday, January 28.
  • Next Byzantine lecture (extra credit for those whose interests are other than purely intellectual) on Monday, January 28.

   

• March, under the old calendar, was the first month of the new year. It was dedicated to the Roman god Mars. Like his Greek counterpart, Ares, Mars was a god of war. The Roman Mars, however, was also the protector of the farmer's land and his crops. The agricultural aspect of Mars may have been an extension of his military nature - if he was going to help the Romans protect their territory, he might as well help protect the individual citizen's land and its production as well. Remember, the idealized Roman citizen was a farmer who left he plow to fight as a soldier when the state called. Soldier and farmer were opposite but inseparable sides of the same coin.
  
  
• Cincinnatus, one of the heroes of Livy's account of Rome's early history was the paradigm.  A patrician whose son had opposed reforms the plebeians sought, he was forced to sell his vast estates to pay a fine levied against his son. Cincinnatus retired to a small farm. There, ploughing his fields like a good agricola, he was found some months later by a delegation of Senators who announced to him that the Romans had elected him dictator to defend the state against the onslaught of the pesky, neighboring Aequi, who had managed to trap the Roman consul and his army that had been sent against them. Cincinnatus left the plow, got his sword, rescued the army, and retired from his dictatorship within 16 days (although under the constitution he was entitled to keep the office for 6 months). Cincinnatus then went home, put down his sword, and went back to ploughing his fields. [The topic was a popular among European painters on classical themes - version 1, version 2.]
  
  
• The Feriae Marti (NP - "Festival of Mars") was celebrated through most of the month of March, beginning on the Kalends, with repeated rituals in honor of the god conducted by the Salii (the "Leaping Priests" or the "Dancing Priests") until the 24th of the Month. The last nine days of this period were also fast days. On the 25th of the Month, the Romans broke their fast at the Hilaria ("Festival of Joy"). [This may sound a bit familiar: scholars believe that the origins of the Mardi Gras lie in Feriae Marti and that the early Church coopted Roman holidays in March for Easter celebrations].
  
  
• The Salii were a lesser priesthood (a sodalitas (sodales - 'companion') vs. the major collegia) comprised of two groups of 12 men, the Palatini (especially devoted to Mars) and the Collini (especially devoted to Quirinus). To be a Salii, you had to be a patrician, and both of your parents had to be alive. The Salii wore a very old style of military style dress, a tunica picta (painted or colored tunic) and a bronze breast plate. Additionally, they wore a short military cloak with scarlet stripes and a purple border. On their heads they wore a conical helmet (apex). The Salii were armed with swords and carried spears in their right hands. The most important part of their gear, worn on the left arm, however, was the ancile ("shield") shaped roughly like a figure-8.
  
  
• The Romans believed that Jupiter had dropped a shield from heaven as a gift to Numa, Rome's second king after Romulus, and to the Romans, the founder of many of their religious rituals and priesthoods (including the Salii). Numa was so afraid that it would be stolen that he had a smithy make 11 copies (so no one would know the divine one) and stored them in the Regia. Also stored in the Regia were the spears of Mars, which were said to foretell disaster when they shook spontaneously (which they did on the pridie Ides Marti in 44 BCE, the night before Julius Caesar was assassinated).
  
  
• On the 1st, 9th and 24th of March, during the Feriae Marti, the Salii proceeded through Rome, stopping at certain points to perform a very complicated ritual dance involving much jumping about and to chant a hymn that was so old the Romans themselves forgot the meaning of the words by the late Republic. After their processionals, the Salii retired to a feast of fairly luxurious standards (there are stories of the Emperor Claudius skipping out on a palace dinner party to join the Salii).
  
  
• While the martial aspects of the ritual are obvious, scholars believe it reflects agrarian concerns as well. According to anthropologists, for example, leaping and dancing are often performed to encourage crops to grow. Similarly, the goal of the procession and dance may have been to frighten away evil spirits when the crops were young. While the spectacle was great fun, the Romans took the ritual very serious. Scipio Africanus, for example, delayed a military campaign one March, because he was a member of the Salii, and when not in Rome, the Salii did not move about. You either were in Rome, helping to carry the ancila, or you stayed put so as not to profane the ritual.
  
  
• The Kalends of every month were dedicated to Juno, and the 1st of March, in addition to festivities in honor of Mars, were also dedicated to Juno Lucina. Juno, in her role as Lucina ("she who brings children into light") was a goddess of childbirth and the Romans referred to the Kalends of March as the Matronalia ("Mother's Day"). Women celebrated the feast by participating in rites at the temple of Juno Lucina on the Esquiline hill. The temple where Romans took a coin every time they had a child was located in a grove sacred to Juno that contained two ancient lotus trees (one of which the Vestal Virgins used to decorate with offerings of their hair). On the day of the festival, Roman women who participated in the ritual wore their hair loose (even though Roman married women always wore their hair 'up'), and dressed up, although they wore no belts or ties or knots in their clothing.
  
  
• Husbands offered prayers for their wives and gave them presents. Daughters also gave presents to their own mothers. Interestingly enough, slaves got the day off on the Matronalia, and Roman wives prepared a feast for them and served it to them on this day.
  
  
• Things to think about:
  • What do the particulars of the Matronalia tell us about the Roman family?
  • Why did the rituals for Juno Lucina require a different style of dress for women?
  • What does the Roman conception of Mars tell us about the nature of Roman social identity?

Pictures of Roman clothing / Article on Roman clothing (part 1 and part 2) / Roman military dress / Plutarch's Life of Numa / Tertullian's condemnation of the Matronalia (de Idolatria, 14).

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• The early and middle republic - (509 BCE - 133 BCE)
  
  
  • Romans believed that one of the last kings, Servius Tullius, conducted the first census of the Roman people. During the census, citizens were classified according to wealth to determine their eligibility for military service and voting rights. Historians think the 6 census divisions attributed to Servius Tullius probably developed later than the monarchy. This elaborate system of classification determined what sort of armor and arms each citizen would be required to supply and within a class, distinguished between the seniores (47-60) who would serve in Rome as a last defense if the army failed in the field and the iuniores (17-46) who fought outside Rome. The Servian census system also identified a last class of citizens, the capite censi ("registered by headcount"), who were eligible to vote, but could not serve in the army because they owned no property (and so could not afford arms). The capite censi would not serve in the army until about the year 100 BCE, when Marius, one of the greatest Roman generals, reformed the army to meet Rome's growing military demands.

• During the early and middle republic, Roman soldiers were led by elected magistrates (one of the duties of a consul was to lead Roman armies in the field). Every year, at the end of the campaigning season, the legions were disbanded, and had to be reformed with new officers for the next campaigning season.
  
  
• As Rome's area of political and military activity began to expand, the Roman government began to support cavalry and infantry financially (i.e., help them buy weapons and horses). Because the campaigning seasons were growing longer, and because Roman was acquiring land some distance from her own boundaries, the nature of military service began to change significantly. Soldiers who could not get home every year could not farm, and if they could not farm, they could not afford the weaponry that military service required.
  
  
• After the sack of Rome by the Gauls, the Romans also reorganized the class system into which the population had been organized for military purposes. Now, membership in a class was a function of age not wealth. Rome also developed the maniple as a unit of military organization. By the beginning of the Punic Wars, Rome's army was divided into 4 legions. Each legion contained 60 centuries, and 30 maniples (two centuries working together comprised a maniple). It is very difficult to estimate the actual numbers of the army, however. Although in theory a century was 100 men, in practice, there were times when Rome couldn't field full centuries. Finally, as Rome expanded, she obtained the services of her allies in military campaigns. Allied with every two Roman legions were two alae sociorum ("wings of allies") as well as extraordinarii (elite allied troops).
  
  
• According to Polybius, during the 2nd Punic War, the normal strength of a legion was 4,000 infantry and 200 cavalry. Legionaries were chosen from citizens between the ages of 17 and 46 who owned property worth 400 denarii. It was during this period that Rome's army became semi-professional (from the rank and file point of view) in practice. Soldiers re-upped every year, in anticipation of booty won by generals against Rome's enemies, and a growing alienation from life on the farm.
  
  
• Military command:
  
  
  • Consuls and praetors had overall control of the army.
  • The senate might also appoint legates to whom a provincial governor could delegate command of sections of the army.
  • The consuls elected 24 tribunes (6 per legion) to serve as an officer corps. At least 10 of the 24 had to have at least 10 years of military experience. The remaining tribunes had to have at least 5 years of experience. It was a prestigious position and you had to be at least an equite to be chosen.
  • Tribunes selected 10 centurions (primii pilii - first spears or prior centuriones) who served as the equivalent of modern non-commissioned officer corps and participated with the tribunes in military councils. These centurions each picked a partner (posterior centuriones) to help them fulfil their duties and take their place if they fell in battle. Each maniple had two centurions.
  • The centurions picked optiones (who were rear-guard officers) and signiferi (standard bearers). Each century was divided into 10 units of 8 men who shared a tent (contubernia) and pack-mule on campaign.
    
    
• Marian Reforms: (2nd century B.C.E.)
  
  
  • Marius didn't do much about the formal organization of the army, but he did make profound changes:
    
    
    • the capite censi could now serve and the state paid for their armor
    • cohortes (10 in total) replaced the maniples (30 in total) as the principal subdivision of the legion. There were nominally 600 men in a cohort, but the actual number varied between 300 and 600.
    • Armor became uniform across classes of the army (everyone had a sword and pilum [a kind of javeline], a mail shirt and shield ).
      
      

One effect of the Marian reforms was political. Soldiers, especially those in the capite censi, were completely dependent on their generals for long term financial security. Their generals, who were also Roman politicians, began to have clear incentives a) to seek the kind of military campaigns that would guarantee booty; b) seek the kind of political settlements that would benefit their veterans (Rome had no pension plan for soldiers). Accordingly, the army increasingly became an independent social institution whose members first loyalties were to military commanders, not the state.

• Civil Wars: (1st century B.C.E.)
  
  
  • During the first century B.C.E., Rome finally granted full Roman citizenship to Italians living south of the Po (although it took them a war - the Social War, to do it). Thus, the alae sociorum were no more.
    
    
  • The cost of arming and maintaining the army now rested entirely on the state and soldier's pay doubled in the course of the century.
    
    
  • The number of legions increased. Troops were increasingly recruited from Roman provinces.
    
    
  • Military Command:
    
    
    • In an effort to prevent the politicization of the army, Rome passed a law in 52 BCE requiring a 5 year period between the holding of elective office and military command. As a result, the armies ceased to be commanded by elected magistrates
    • Layers of command between commander and tribune developed (prefect and legate).
      
      
• The Principate: (31 B.C.E. - 100 C.E.)
  
  
  • After the wars, Augustus settled many of his troops in colonies and reorganized and increasingly professionalized the army and the navy.
    
    
  • Augustus also instituted the Praetorian Guard. It had been customary since Scipio Aemilianus' siege of Numantia (although Carthage had surrendered Spain to Rome after the 2nd Punic War, someone forgot to tell the Spaniards and took the Romans until 133 to subdue oppostion to their rule), for Roman generals to be attended by a personal bodyguard called a praetorian cohort. Augustus, in 27 B.C.E., institutionalized this practice by forming the Praetorian Guard, an elite legion comprising 9 cohorts and a small cavalry (4,500 men total). The PG was recruited mainly from Italy (unlike the legions which were recruited from throughout the Roman world) and stationed in Rome.

Military Command:

• Augustus began the practice of appointing a legionary legate who would have command of an individual legion for several years (the 6 tribunes reporting to the legate who reported to the Emperor). The post of tribune became increasingly administrative and Augustus added the post of praefectus castrorum - the equivalent of quartermaster. These posts became less prestigious for members of the Roman elite, but furiously sought after bar ordinary citizens who sought careers as professional soldiers.
  
  
• The infantry corp fell into 3 groups of soldiers - the principales, immunes and milites. Principales included officers like the signifer and optio, who recieved extra pay. Milites were ordinary rank and file soldiers. Immunes were skilled craftsmen/engineers who were exempt from most ordinary military duties and included, surveyers, equiment makers and menders, doctors, carpenters, smiths, accountants, and clerical staff.
  
  

• The Soldier's Life
  
  
  • By the time Rome was fielding armies throughout the year (3rd century), a soldier could expect to serve a term of 6 years, and could re-up for a period of 16 years or so of total service. Once a soldier served his initial term, he could be recalled to service (although once you had done 16 years total, you were supposed to be exempt).
    
    
  • Augustus increased the term of service to 16 years, followed by four years in the reserve. After your 20th year you got a retirement bonus, but were required to live near the army camp you retired from for another 5 years (as an emergency reserve).
    
    
  • Although soldiers were originally unpaid (the idea was only folks who afford to defend Rome should be her citizens), by the 4th century, soldiers were receiving a stipendium and equites were receiving payments to cover the expenses maintaining a horse involved. By the time of the Civil Wars, Roman soldiers had come to regard the stipendium as pay, not coverage of expenses. The amount of the stipendium increased dramatically during the wars as generals competed for soldiers. After the wars were over, Augustus did not cut back on the stipendium (although he did retire a lot of soldiers). Instead, he radically increased the pay of centurions relative to ordinary soldiers. The Praetorian Guard always received a lot more money than ordinary legionaries.
    
    
  • In addition to pay, soldiers expected to receive a share of captured booty, occasional cash payments from emperors and retirement gifts (which sometimes included the grant of a nice little farm to retire to in a new colonia).
    
    
  • Technically, soldiers didn't have the right to get married while serving. But most had common law wives and children aquired in the regions were there army camps were located. After retirement soldiers tended to setttle down where they had served and get formally married. We happen to have a lot of wills of Roman soldiers (drafted by legionary officers) in which explicit provisions were made for these women and children and which Roman courts enforced. So although technically the soldiers couldn't marry, effectively they did and Septimius Servius (a career soldier) finally lifted the ban in 197 C.E.

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Web Resources on the Roman Army:

• VROMA's pages on the Roman army (part 1 and part 2)
• The Legio page
• The Roman Army in Britain
• Warfare in the Ancient World
• Catapults in Greek & Roman Antiquity
• A Bibliography on the Roman Army
• The Roman Army of the Middle Republic
• The Roman Way of Declaring War
• Methods of Military Communication

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 Roman Triumphs

• Origins, Nature and Requirements
  
  
  • The Triumph was a religious ceremony of Etruscan origin. It was the highest honor a military commander could receive.
    
    
  • In order to receive a triumph, a Roman general
    
    
    • had to possess imperium [the enforcement of this rule grew lax over time]
    • Had to be the decisive victor (at least 5,000 killed) over a foreign enemy [which is why Crassus had no joy from defeating Spartacus].
    • Some say that the Roman troops had to hail the general as imperator in the field.
    • The general had to bring at least a token army back to Rome.
    • The Senate had to vote to grant the general a triumph (which entailed permitting him to keep his imperium inside the pomerium for a day).
      
      
  • The triumphator, on the day of his triumph, came as close to divinity as Roman mortal could.
    
    
• Proceedings
  
  
  • The triumphal parade (model) proceeded the triumphator from the Campus Martius (vitual images) through the streets of Rome, to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline Hill.
    
    
  • The parade included the general's soldiers, often carrying placards with slogans descibing the general (e.g. Caesar's troops carried placards which bore the words: Veni, Vidi, Vici) or showing maps of the territories he conquered. Other soldiers led carts containing booty that would be turned over to Rome's treasury. A section of the parade included prisoners, often the leaders of the defeated cities or countries, sometimes with their children, bound in chains. Another section of the parade included the animals that would be sacrificed in thanks for the victory.
    
    
  • Traditionally, the triumphator ordered the execution of at least one the prisoners of war (and then in a show of magnaminity, spared the others - who were sold into slavery).
    
    
  • The triumphator, in a golden chariot, wearing a tunica covered in palm leaves, under an embroidered, purple toga, with his face painted red. He was accompanied by a slave who stood behind him in the chariot, holding a golden crown over his head, whispering in his ears, "remember, you are mortal." When the procession reached the Capitoline, after dispatching the requisite number of prisoners of war, the triumphator offered sacrifice to Jupiter and then dismissed his troops. The day concluded with feasts throughout the city (usually at the triumphator's expense) to which virtually every citizen was invited.
    
    
• Triumphs & Politics
  
  
  • We have records of about 100 triumphs being held in Rome between 220 and 70 B.C.E. What does this tell us about Rome's activities during this period?
    
    
  • Triumphs became jealously sought after prizes during the period when the Republic began to fall? Why?
    
    
  • After Augustus established the Principate, he would only permit triumphs to be celebrated by members of his family. Why?
    
    
  • Triumphatores would often erect triumphal arches to memorialize their victories and triumphs (e.g., Titus and Constantine). Why?
    
    
  • How are the social practices of the triumph and the funeral similar and different?

Triumphal arch of Titus; Triumphal arch of Constantine

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Ostia

Description of Capitoline Hill; See, also: OAG: 229-241

The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus (Plut. Aemilius Paulus, 32-34)

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