Professors Wagner (on leave, winter semester and Short Term), Bradley (on leave, 2002-2003), Kelsey, Nigro, and Reich; Associate Professors Low, Chair, and McCormick; Assistant Professors Sargent (on leave, winter semester), Bradfield, Kahan, and Mathis

Students who major in psychology examine the influences on behavior that derive from biology (especially the brain), from individual psychological processes such as cognitions and emotions, and from our sociocultural surroundings. Students also learn and utilize the various methodologies that psychologists use to uncover these influences. Senior majors must complete an empirical or service-learning thesis. For an empirical thesis, a student conducts original research on an issue of theoretical or practical concern. For a service-learning thesis, a student works in a local school or agency, using his or her training in psychology to address social issues in an applied setting.

Cross-listed Courses. Note that unless otherwise specified, when a department/program references a course or unit in the department/program, it includes courses and units cross-listed with the department/program.

Major Requirements. The major consists of at least eleven courses. All majors are required to complete successfully:

1) PSYC 101, 218, and either 261 or ED/PY 262. These courses must be completed by the end of the junior year. Psychology 101 may be waived for students who achieve a 4 or 5 on the Advanced Placement examination in psychology or who pass a departmental examination.

2) Four courses from one of the three areas listed below (A, B, or C); only one of these four courses may be a 200-level course. With permission of his or her major advisor, a student may substitute a relevant course or Short Term unit from psychology or another department or program for a course in this category, so long as the substitution is not used to fulfill other departmental requirements.

3) Two courses from each of the two remaining areas listed below; only one in each area may be a 200-level course.

Areas:

A. Biological Psychology.

NS/PY 200. Introduction to Neuroscience.
PSYC 250. Motivation and Emotion.
PSYC 303. Health Psychology.
NS/PY 330. Cognitive Neuroscience.
PSYC 355. Behavioral Endocrinology.
PSYC 362. Psychopharmacology: How Drugs Affect Behavior.
NS/PY 363. Physiological Psychology.
PSYC 401. Junior-Senior Seminar in Biological Psychology.

B. Individual Psychology.

PSYC 211. Psychology of Abnormal Personality.
PSYC 230. Cognitive Psychology.
PSYC 302. Sensation and Perception.
PSYC 305. Animal Learning.
PSYC 313. Advanced Personality Theory.
PSYC 317. Psychology and Law.
PSYC 333. Advanced Topics in Abnormal Psychology.
PSYC 374. Psychology of Language.
PSYC 380. Social Cognition.

C. Sociocultural Psychology.

PY/SO 210. Social Psychology.
PSYC 240. Developmental Psychology.
PY/SO 310. Advanced Topics in Social Psychology.
PSYC 341. Advanced Topics in Developmental Psychology.
PY/WS 343. Women, Culture, and Health.
PSYC 370. Psychology of Women and Gender.
PSYC 371. Prejudice and Stereotyping.
PSYC 376. Psychology of Social Conflict.
PSYC 403. Junior-Senior Seminar in Sociocultural Psychology.

4) In addition to taking these eleven courses, all majors must complete a senior thesis that takes one of two forms: empirical research or service-learning.

A thesis may be completed during the fall and/or winter semester of the senior year. Topics for theses must be approved by the department. For fall semester and two-semester theses: 1) students register for Psychology 457A (for empirical research) or Psychology 457B (for service-learning); 2) proposals must be submitted by Friday of the second full week of classes (20 September 2002). For winter semester theses: 1) students register for Psychology 458A (for empirical research) or Psychology 458B (for service-learning); 2) proposals must be submitted by the second Friday in November (8 November 2002). Guidelines for proposals are on the department's Web site (www.bates.edu/acad/depts/psychology). Candidates for the honors program are invited by the department from among those seniors conducting two-semester thesis projects who have shown a high degree of initiative and progress by the end of the fall semester. The faculty thesis advisor must assure the department that the student's work is of honors caliber and is progressing satisfactorily before the department will invite the student.

Please note that in the fall semester, students in Psychology 457B meet in a seminar, and the instructor serves as advisor. In the winter semester, students who choose Psychology 458B must find an individual advisor. Students contemplating this option should talk to staff members at the Center for Service-Learning and to their instructor or advisor before contacting a placement site. Once a site is selected, students must submit a contract, signed by a representative of the organization and by the student, with their thesis proposal.

All seniors must present their thesis work at a general meeting of the department at the end of the semester. Presentations take the form of a ten- to fifteen-minute talk or a poster that describes the project.

Pass/Fail Grading Option. Pass/fail grading may not be elected for courses applied toward the major.

General Education. Courses listed below may form a set with 101: 200, 210, 211, 230, 240, and 250. If 101 has been waived, any pair of the aforementioned 200-level courses may constitute a set. A student may request that the department approve a two-course set not currently designated or a Short Term unit as the third course for the social science requirement prior to enrolling in the courses or unit. The quantitative requirement may be satisfied through Psychology 218. Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, or A-Level credit awarded by the department may not be used towards fulfillment of any general education requirements.

Courses

PSYC 101. Introductory Psychology. A general course intended to introduce the student to the study of behavior in preparation for more advanced work in psychology and related fields. Fundamental psychological laws and principles of human behavior are examined in the light of the scientific method. The course is a prerequisite for all other courses in the department. Enrollment limited to 75 per section. Normally offered every semester. C. McCormick, T. Kahan, K. Mathis.

NS/PY 200. Introduction to Neuroscience. In this course, students study the structure and function of the nervous system, and how they are related to mind and behavior. Topics introduced include neuroanatomy, developmental neurobiology, neurophysiology, neuropharmacology, and neuropsychiatry. The course is aimed at prospective majors and nonmajors interested in exploring a field in which biology and psychology merge, and to which many other disciplines (e.g., chemistry, philosophy, anthropology, computer science) have contributed. Required of neuroscience majors. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101 or any 100-level biology course. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. Not open to students who have received credit for Neuroscience 200 or Psychology 200. Normally offered every year. C. McCormick.

PY/SO 210. Social Psychology. A study of people in social settings. Topics covered include group composition and structure, conformity, self-identity, interpersonal attraction, and attitude formation and change. Theoretical principles are applied to such social phenomena as social conflict, stereotyping, competition, and altruism. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. Not open to students who have received credit for Psychology 210 or Sociology 210. Normally offered every year. M. Sargent.

PSYC 211. Psychology of Abnormal Personality. This course introduces the fundamentals of personality and abnormal psychology. Topics include a variety of personality theories, the trait debate, physiological factors that may shape personality, assessment of personality and psychopathology, approaches to personality research, and application of theory to psychopathology. Readings include Freud, Erikson, Rogers, and research articles on abnormal psychology and personality. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. Normally offered every year. K. Low.

PSYC 218. Statistics and Experimental Design. A laboratory course in the use of statistical methods for describing and drawing inferences from data. Experimental and correlational research designs are studied by analyzing computer-simulated data for numerous problems. Topics covered include sampling theory, correlation and regression, t-tests, chi-square tests, and analysis of variance. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Enrollment limited to 30. Normally offered every semester. A. Bradfield.

PSYC 230. Cognitive Psychology. This course provides an overview of contemporary research and theories concerning the structure and processes of the mind. Topics covered include information processing, artificial intelligence, sensory memory, masking effects, object recognition, attention, short term/working memory, long term memory, false memories, language, and decision making. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. Normally offered every year. T. Kahn.

PSYC 240. Developmental Psychology. A comprehensive introduction to current thinking and research in developmental psychology. Topics include attachment, gender, language acquisition, play, and adolescent suicide. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. Normally offered every year. G. Nigro.

PSYC 242. Child Psychopathology. This course examines the development, maintenance, and treatment of emotional, behavioral, and mental disorders in children and adolescents. Topics covered include anxiety disorders, autism, mental retardation, eating disorders, conduct disorders, learning disorders, and mood disorders. Various theoretical viewpoints are considered. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Enrollment limited to 50. R. Fraser-Thill. New course beginning Fall Semester 2003.

PSYC 250. Motivation and Emotion. The course examines the mechanisms involved in activating and directing behavior and in forming emotions. Analysis includes evaluation of the role of physiological, environmental, and cognitive variables in mediating the following behavioral processes: thirst, hunger, sex, arousal, reward, stress, choice, consistency, and achievement. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. Normally offered every year. J. Kelsey.

PSYC 261. Research Methodology. This course provides comprehensive coverage of the major methods used in psychological research, with special emphasis on experimental design. Students receive extensive practice in designing, conducting, analyzing, and interpreting the results of research studies, and writing reports in APA style. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 218. Enrollment limited to 15 per section. Normally offered every semester. M. Sargent, K. Mathis.

ED/PY 262. Action Research. Action research often begins with a general idea that some kind of improvement or change is desirable. For example, a teacher who is experiencing discipline problems in a classroom may seek an understanding of this issue with the help of trusted observers. In this course, students collaborate with local teachers or service providers on research projects that originate in their work sites. Class meetings introduce design issues, methods of data collection and analysis, and ways of reporting research. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 218 or Education 231/s21. Enrollment limited to 15 per section. Not open to students who have received credit for Education 262 or Psychology 262. Normally offered every year. G. Nigro.

PSYC 302. Sensation and Perception. The course examines the field of perception: how we organize and interpret sensory information so that we can understand the external world. Topics to be covered include principles of psychophysics; the eye and brain; pattern perception; color vision; perception of depth, size, and motion; hearing and auditory system; touch; taste and smell. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Enrollment limited to 20. Normally offered every year. T. Kahn.

PSYC 303. Health Psychology. This course introduces health psychology from a biopsychosocial perspective. The course first describes the theoretical underpinnings of the biopsychosocial model, and the fundamentals of anatomy and physiology. The course then reviews the current research on stress, coping and illness, and stress-management techniques. Research on psychosocial contributors to heart disease, cancer, chronic pain syndromes, and other illnesses is reviewed, along with implications for prevention and treatment. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Neuroscience/Psychology 200, Psychology 211 or 250. Enrollment limited to 50. Normally offered every other year. K. Low.

PSYC 305. Animal Learning. The course examines historical and recent trends in animal learning. Lecture and laboratory topics include classical and operant conditioning, cognitive processes, and biological constraints on learning. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Neuroscience/Psychology 200, Psychology 230 or 250. Normally offered every other year. J. Kelsey.

PY/SO 310. Advanced Topics in Social Psychology. This seminar allows students to explore particular areas of social psychology in depth. The primary goal is to help students deepen their understanding of human social behavior, through extensive study of social psychological theory and research, class discussion, and student projects. Topics vary with each offering of the course, but may include the following: the self, stigma, stereotypes, and persuasion. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 210 and either Psychology 261 or Education/Psychology 262. Enrollment limited to 20. Not open to students who have received credit for Sociology 310 or Psychology 310. Normally offered every other year. M. Sargent.

PSYC 313. Advanced Personality Theory. An in-depth analysis of four or five different theorists, including Freud, Jung, and Rogers. This course proceeds through discussion of primary sources and includes a comparison and critique of the theories based on their personal and social relevance. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 211. Offered with varying frequency. R. Wagner.

PSYC 317. Psychology and Law. In the American criminal justice system, the administration of justice is influenced by a broad range of variables, many of which have been the subject of empirical research in social and cognitive psychology. This course examines how psychological research informs the dialogue surrounding controversial issues in the criminal justice system. Topics covered include eyewitness testimony, confession evidence, detection of deception, child witnesses, expert testimony, and reconstructed/repressed memories. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 261 or Education/Psychology 262. Enrollment limited to 25. Normally offered every year. A. Bradfield.

NS/PY 330. Cognitive Neuroscience. The human brain is a fascinating system in terms of its structure and function. The main questions addressed in this course are: How are brain structure and organization related to how people think, feel, and behave? Conversely, how are thoughts and ideas represented in the brain? Although these questions are examined from a variety of research approaches, the main one is the study of brain-damaged individuals. Prerequisite(s): Neuroscience/Psychology 200 or 363 or Psychology 230. Not open to students who have received credit for Neuroscience 330 or Psychology 330. Normally offered every year. C. McCormick.

PSYC 333. Advanced Topics in Abnormal Psychology. A consideration of contemporary categories of abnormality from several points of view: psychoanalytic, biological, cognitive-behavioral, and existential. Additional topics include differential diagnosis, treatment methods, DSM-IV, and legal issues related to mental illness. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 211 and 218. Normally offered every other year. K. Low.

PSYC 340. Infancy. A seminar that examines the behavior, growth, and development of children from conception through two years of age. Topics include the perceptual, physical, cognitive, language, and social development of infants. The research methods used to study infants are introduced and discussed throughout the course. The weekly study of journal articles is designed to encourage a deeper understanding of these methods, as well as of the concepts covered in the text. Ethical issues in infancy are also considered. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 240 and Psychology 261 or 262. Enrollment limited to 15. R. Fraser-Thill. New course beginning Fall Semester 2003.

PSYC 341. Advanced Topics in Developmental Psychology. A seminar that examines the concepts and methods of developmental psychology. Topics vary from year to year and may include racial and ethnic identity, physical and sexual abuse, and resiliency in development. Students conduct observational projects in local field settings. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 240 and either Psychology 261, Education/Psychology 262, or other methodology course. Enrollment limited to 20. Normally offered every other year. G. Nigro.

PY/WS 343. Women, Culture, and Health. This course examines a variety of perspectives on women's health issues, including reproductive health, body image, sexuality, substance use and abuse, mental health, cancer, AIDS, heart disease, poverty, work, violence, access to health care, and aging. Each topic is examined in sociocultural context, and the complex relationship between individual health and cultural demands or standards is explored. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 211 or 303. Open to first-year students. Not open to students who have received credit for Psychology 343 or Women and Gender Studies 343. Offered with varying frequency. K. Low.

PSYC 355. Behavioral Endocrinology. Behavioral endocrinology is the study of the relationship between hormones and behavior. This course explores topics such as the involvement of hormones in sexual behavior, in the regulation of feeding, in mechanisms of stress, and in cognition. Prerequisite(s): Neuroscience/Psychology 200. Offered with varying frequency. C. McCormick.

PSYC 360. Independent Study. Students, in consultation with a faculty advisor, individually design and plan a course of study or research not offered in the curriculum. Course work includes a reflective component, evaluation, and completion of an agreed-upon product. Sponsorship by a faculty member in the program/department, a course prospectus, and permission of the chair are required. Students may register for no more than one independent study per semester. Normally offered every semester. Staff.

PSYC 362. Psychopharmacology: How Drugs Affect Behavior. This course examines the powerful effects that drugs have on behavior, including the ability to cause addiction and to reduce neurologic and behavioral disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, anxiety, ADHD, depression, and schizophrenia. By examining the effects of these drugs on neurotransmitters, students better understand how the brain mediates these behaviors. Attention is also paid to methodology, drug development, regulatory policy, and the role of pharmaceutical companies. Prerequisite(s): Neuroscience/Psychology 200 or Psychology 250. Offered with varying frequency. J. Kelsey.

NS/PY 363. Physiological Psychology. The course is an introduction to the concepts and methods used in the study of physiological mechanisms underlying behavior. Topics include an introduction to neurophysiology and neuroanatomy; an examination of sensory and motor mechanisms; and the physiological bases of ingestion, sexual behavior, reinforcement, learning, memory, and abnormal behavior. Laboratory work includes examination of neuroanatomy and development of surgical and histological skills. Prerequisite(s): Neuroscience/Psychology 200 or Biology/Neuroscience 308. Not open to students who have received credit for Neuroscience 363 or Psychology 363. Normally offered every year. J. Kelsey.

PSYC 365. Special Topics. Offered from time to time for small groups of students working with a faculty member on specialized projects or experiments. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 261 or Education/Psychology 262. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

PSYC 370. Psychology of Women and Gender. This course takes a critical look at psychology's theories and findings about women and gender. Students examine topics such as menarche, mothering, and menopause from a variety of perspectives; the ways that race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, and age modify women's experiences are considered. The utility of psychological knowledge for effecting social change is explored. Prerequisite(s) or Corequisite(s): one of the following: Psychology 261, Education/Psychology 262, Interdisciplinary 250, or other research methodology course. Offered with varying frequency. G. Nigro.

PY/SO 371. Prejudice and Stereotyping. Two issues that have long held the interest of social psychologists and that are of great social importance are prejudice and stereotyping. This course explores traditional and contemporary social psychological research on unconscious and covert forms of prejudice, as well as the relationship between stereotyping and self-esteem. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 261 or Education/Psychology 262. Enrollment limited to 50. Not open to students who have received credit for Psychology 371 or Sociology 371. Normally offered every year. M. Sargent.

PSYC 374. Psychology of Language. This course examines the perception, comprehension, and production of language. Topics covered include psychological and linguistic aspects phonology, syntax, and semantics; the biological bases of language; reading; bilingualism; and disorders. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Enrollment limited to 30. Offered with varying frequency. K. Mathis.

PSYC 376. Psychology of Social Conflict. This course considers the bases and consequences of social conflict and its resolution, from interpersonal to cultural and political conflict. Topics include escalation of conflict, ethnic and international conflict, negotiation, third-party intervention, and building community and peace. Prerequisite(s): Psychology/Sociology 210, or permission of instructor. Enrollment limited to 25. Normally offered every year. R. Wagner.

PSYC 380. Social Cognition. Every day we characterize and evaluate other people, endeavor to understand the causes of their behavior, and try to predict their future actions. This course examines these social judgments and the cognitive processes upon which they depend. Topics include attribution theory, biases in social-information processing, impression formation, and prejudice. Prerequisite(s): Psychology/Sociology 210 and either Psychology 261 or Education/Psychology 262. Enrollment limited to 18. Offered with varying frequency. M. Sargent.

PSYC 401. Junior-Senior Seminar in Biological Psychology. A course designed to give junior and senior majors an opportunity to explore a significant new area in biological psychology. The topic changes from year to year and with the expertise of the faculty member. Possible topics include neural bases of addiction, memory, sexual behavior, and stress. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Biology/Neuroscience 308, Neuroscience/Psychology 330 or 363. Enrollment limited to 15. Offered with varying frequency. Staff.

PSYC 403. Junior-Senior Seminar in Sociocultural Psychology. A course designed to give junior and senior majors an opportunity to explore a significant new area in sociocultural psychology. The topic changes from year to year and with the expertise of the faculty member. Possible topics include conflict resolution, cultural psychology, and social policies toward children. Enrollment limited to 15. Offered with varying frequency. Staff.

PSYC 457A, 458A. Senior Thesis/Empirical Research. This type of thesis involves empirical research and report writing, supplemented by individual conferences with an advisor. Students register for Psychology 457A in the fall semester or for Psychology 458A in the winter semester. Majors writing a two-semester or honors thesis register for both Psychology 457A and 458A. Normally offered every year. Staff.

PSYC 457B, 458B. Senior Thesis/Service-Learning. This type of thesis involves a combination of community service and related academic study. Students complete 50 to 60 hours of service in a community placement and meet in seminar once a week for structured reflection about ethics, the cultural context of students' service work, individual and social change, and other topics specific to students' placements. In the fall semester, students register for Psychology 457B, and community placements involve children. In the winter semester, students register for Psychology 458B, and there are no restrictions on the type of placement. Normally offered every year. G. Nigro.

Short Term Units

PSYC s19. Animal Cognition: Exploring the Minds of Birds, Bees, Chimps, and Dolphins. The goals of this unit are to introduce students to the basic principles of comparative cognition by examining the mental abilities of several the mental abilities of several nonhuman species and to convey the importance of studying these animals for their survival. In order to achieve these goals, students in this unit 1) are provided with a general historical and evolutionary framework in which to consider cognitive functioning, 2) discuss an extensive reading list during class sessions, and 3) visit the laboratories of distinguished researchers in the field of animal cognition during the last week of the term. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101. Enrollment is limited to 16. Written permission of the instructor is required. K. Mathis, T. Kahan. New unit beginning Short Term 2003.

PSYC s26. Developmental Psychobiology. Seminar and research in developmental psychobiology. Students conduct laboratory and/or library study of current topics in developmental psychobiology. How do signals from the prenatal and postnatal environments interact with genetic signals to shape the development of brain structure and function? Laboratories involve research projects in the field of developmental psychobiology and the use of developmental neuroscience techniques. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Neuroscience/Psychology 200 or 363, Psychology 240, or Biology/Neuroscience 308. Enrollment limited to 12. Offered with varying frequency. C. McCormick.

PSYC s30. Contemporary Psychotherapies with Practicum. This unit surveys a variety of contemporary psychotherapies, ranging from dynamic approaches to behavior modification. The unit is "hands on," in that students are asked to role-play therapy sessions on videotape as part of the unit requirements, and practice a variety of therapeutic techniques. The unit also includes opportunities to observe treatment on videotape. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 333. Enrollment limited to 12. Offered with varying frequency. K. Low.

PSYC s31. Animal Models of Behavioral Disorders. The unit examines how we can understand and develop treatments for human behavioral and neurological disorders by developing animal models of these disorders. Emphasis is on laboratory development and examination of environmental and physiological (particularly neurochemical) determinants of these behavioral disorders in animals. Possible topics are schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, addiction, obesity, ADHD, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's chorea. Prerequisite(s): Neuroscience/Psychology 200. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 10. Written permission of the instructor is required. Offered with varying frequency. J. Kelsey.

PSYC s32. Group Dynamics. An applied approach to the study of small groups. Topics include group composition, development, performance and leadership, and the use of groups as effective educational mechanisms. Students read theoretical and experimental literature and observe small groups. Prerequisite(s): Psychology/Sociology 210. Enrollment limited to 15. Written permission of the instructor is required. Offered with varying frequency. R. Wagner.

PSYC s34. New Directions in Developmental Psychology. This unit provides students with an opportunity to explore a significant new area in developmental psychology. The structure of the unit varies, depending on the topic, but always involves a service-learning and/or research component. Topics may include youth and AIDS, children and the law, and memory development. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 240. Enrollment limited to 15. Written permission of the instructor is required. Offered with varying frequency. G. Nigro.

PSYC s40. Tests: Do They Bias Anything? Standardized tests are frequently among the criteria used by organizations and schools to decide which applicants to admit. This practice raises a number of important questions. What are the causes of racial and gender differences in standardized test performance? Are intelligence tests culturally biased? Do standardized tests predict college performance? What costs and benefits are associated with employing affirmative action as a substitute for, or supplement to, standardized testing? Students engage these and other issues through an intensive combination of readings, discussion, and projects. Prerequisite(s): Psychology 101 and at least one other psychology course. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 15. Offered with varying frequency. M. Sargent.

NS/PY s41. Behavioral Neuroscience Labs. This unit is designed to complement Neuroscience/Psychology 200, Introduction to Neuroscience. Students cover some of the topics introduced in Introduction to Neuroscience in greater depth through extensive reading of the primary literature and through laboratory experiments. Prerequisite(s): Neuroscience/Psychology 200. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 12. Not open to students who have received credit for Neuroscience 363 or s41, or Psychology 363 or s41. Offered with varying frequency. C. McCormick.

PSYC s46. Internship in Psychology. Participation in off-campus research or service-learning opportunities. By specific arrangement and departmental approval only. Normally offered every year. Staff.

PSYC s50. Independent Study. Students, in consultation with a faculty advisor, individually design and plan a course of study or research not offered in the curriculum. Course work includes a reflective component, evaluation, and completion of an agreed-upon product. Sponsorship by a faculty member in the program/department, a course prospectus, and permission of the chair are required. Students may register for no more than one independent study during a Short Term. Normally offered every year. Staff.

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