Outline and chapter notes to accompany chapter 1 BIOLOGY: SCIENCE AND ETHICS Dec., 2003 A. SCIENCE DEVELOPS THEORIES BY TESTING HYPOTHESES BIOLOGY is the scientific study of living things. HYPOTHESES are central to science Scientific statements must be TESTABLE against real-world observations. Ideas that are tested in this way are called HYPOTHESES. Statements that could possibly be confirmed (proved true) are called VERIFIABLE. Statements that could possibly be disconfirmed (proved false) are FALSIFIABLE. Statements that are both verifiable and falsifiable tend to be so specific that they are only of limited interest (to few people, and only for a short time). The most interesting statements in science are general statements that: * pertain to "all" instances of some phenomenon * are therefore not verifiable * are still falsifiable METHODS OF REASONING: DEDUCTION = reasoning from the general to the specific Deduction is used in the testing of hypotheses INDUCTION = reasoning from the specific to the general Induction never guarantees the truth of any conclusions WAYS OF DEVISING HYPOTHESES: Induction Intuition and imagination (see Fig. 1.1) Esthetic preferences Religious or philosophical ideas Analogy with other processes Serendipity (discovering something not sought for) HYPOTHESES ARE NOT CONCLUSIONS. Since none of the above methods guarantee truthful results, all hypotheses must be tested against events and conditions in the observable world. Observations collected in the testing of hypotheses are called DATA. SCIENCE is defined as a method of investigation that relies on the testing of falsifiable hypotheses THEORIES A THEORY is an interrelated set of hypotheses that: a) explain many observed phenomena in terms of unseen ("theoretical") entities like genes or atoms, and b) have been tested many times and in many different ways without being falsified. A PRODUCTIVE theory is one that suggests many new hypotheses to test. A theory may be communicated in terms of a MODEL (a simplified mathematical or visual form). A THEORY TO DESCRIBE LIVING SYSTEMS Living systems, including organisms (but also cells and ecosystems) are distinguished by the following suite of characteristics: Metabolism: Materials are taken in and chemically altered; materials brought in have, on average, higher energy levels that materials released; some of the energy released during metabolism is used to carry out life functions. Motion: Some metabolic energy is usually used to produce motion. Selective response: Living systems respond to certain stimuli and not others, often distinguishing danger from nondanger and food from nonfood. Homeostasis: Living systems often maintain favorable conditions (and thus avoid extremes) by activities that undo or reverse deviations from those favorable conditions. Growth and biosynthesis: Living systems add to themselves by synthesizing new materials. Genetic material: All living systems have genetic material in the form of nucleic acids, carrying hereditary information derived from previously existing living systems. Reproduction: Living organisms can make other organisms like themselves, a process that involves copying the genetic material. Population structure: All living organisms belong to populations of similar organisms related by common descent. HYPOTHESIS TESTING IN EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE Hypotheses can be tested by setting up artificial situations called EXPERIMENTS. Well-designed experiments always compare the experimental set of conditions with another similar set of conditions called a CONTROL. The control conditions must differ from the experimental conditions in only the one variable being tested. Example: Lederberg & Lederberg's replica-plating experiment. HYPOTHESIS TESTING IN NATURALISTIC SCIENCE Many branches of science deal with phenomena restricted to the past or too large, too complex, or too long-lasting to allow experimental manipulation. Naturalistic scientists are restricted to those observations that nature permits. Naturalistic comparisons are thus like experiments that nature has performed, and the scientists must search for situations where the experimental conditions naturally differ (e.g., differences from place to place in natural temperature or lighting). Since other conditions (those not being tested) are not controlled, natural scientists often collect large samples and use statistical methods to eliminate or minimize the effects of these other variables. B. SCIENTISTS WORK IN PARADIGMS, WHICH CAN HELP DEFINE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS A PARADIGM is a set of interconnected theories, hypotheses, value judgements, assumptions, concepts, and terminology within which scientific activity takes place. NORMAL SCIENCE takes place within the context of a paradigm. Normal science proceeds piecemeal by testing one hypothesis at a time. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS occur when one paradigm replaces another. The newer paradigm, in order to replace the older, must explain everything that the old one did and more. Scientific revolutions proceed by recruiting new adherents to the new paradigm. Often, these new adherents represent a new generation of younger scientists. MOLECULAR GENETICS AS A PARADIGM IN BIOLOGY Molecular genetics since the 1950s was a paradigm that introduced an entire terminology and a way of describing how genes work. The "central dogma" of molecular genetics was that information from DNA was used to make RNA, which in turn was used to make a protein sequence. Terminology associated with this paradigm includes: code, codon, transcription, translation. THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY Science occurs in a cultural context. Science occurs in many cultures and societies. Scientists publish their results and make these results accessible to other scientists. At least since seventeenth century England, scientists have formed a SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY. "Turf wars" and other forms of competition in science demonstrate both the existence of a social context and the kinds of problems that may result from the fact that scientists are human. C. SCIENTISTS OFTEN CONSIDER ETHICAL ISSUES ETHICS MORALS are beliefs about what is right and what is wrong. These beliefs serve as guidelines for conduct. MORAL CODES are sets of such guidelines. The study of moral codes is called ETHICS. Moral codes help people to make specific judgements about the rightness or wrongness of particular acts by applying general rules. RESOLVING MORAL CONFLICTS Moral conflicts exist WITHIN a moral code when its rules suggest two or more incompatible actions. Within a moral code, moral conflicts may be resolved by ranking moral guidelines so that one guideline gives way to another rule of higher rank when the two conflict. Moral conflicts also arise when people follow different moral codes. DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS A moral code is DEONTOLOGICAL if acts are judged without regard to their consequences. Some deontological systems are based on religious texts or religious principles; some are not. Immanuel Kant's deontological system was based on one principle, called the "categorical imperative": act only according to rules that you would want all others to follow. Most deontological systems recognize certain RIGHTS that we should not violate. UTILITARIAN ETHICS Utilitarian moral codes are those in which acts are judged according to their consequences. Utilitarian systems always strive to maximize the greatest good for the greatest number of people, or the greatest excess of pleasures over pains. OTHER ETHICAL SYSTEMS include: EGOISM, a system which judges acts according to whether they benefit one individual or group. NATURE-BASED ETHICS, a system which judges acts according to whether or not they are "natural". However, examples can be found in nature for many incompatible acts. ETHICAL RELATIVISM, the position that ethics do differ and should differ from one society to the next and that no universal standard can be applied. HOW SOCIETIES MAKE ETHICAL DECISIONS In pluralistic societies, different people bring different ethical systems to the public forums in which collective decisions are made. Most pluralistic societies make collective decisions by some form of voting. John Rawls argues that pluralistic decision-making rules (such as voting) are justified if they embody some principle of FAIRNESS to all. SOCIAL POLICY DECISIONS ON ISSUES INVOLVING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY Decisions on issues involving science and technology can be subdivided into three phases: 1. SCIENTIFIC ISSUES: "purely scientific" issues on which scientists will generally agree if sufficient data are known. Issues are resolved by reviewing many scientific tests based on data; political or ethical opinions are expected to be irrelevant at this stage. EXAMPLE: is chemical X poisonous to fish? 2. SCIENCE POLICY ISSUES: issues involving the possible consequences of one or another proposed course of action. Like the scientific issues, these issues are judged on the basis of data, but different methods of estimating RISKS and uncertainties may lead to differences of opinion regarding future consequences. (A RISK is the probability of a particular outcome.) EXAMPLE: what level of chemical X will exist in the river if certain measures are adopted? 3. POLICY ISSUES: issues of choice among various alternatives, based largely on value judgements in the light of the findings on the science policy issues. EXAMPLE: is it worth investing 15 million dollars to build a treatment plant if it is estimated to reduce the level of chemical X by 30% and the fish mortality by 40%? All stages of decision-making should include procedures for exposing misinformation. D. ETHICAL QUESTIONS ARISE IN DECISIONS ABOUT EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS USES OF ANIMALS Animals are used for many purposes by human societies: As a source of food for humans (by far the most animals are used for food). As a source of clothing As companion animals (pets) As work animals In recreational hunting, fishing, and trapping In research Animal use is justified in various ways: Providing food for people Serving as status symbols Serving recreational needs Improving human health by testing medicines, surgical procedures, and hypotheses about the causes of a disease As stand-ins for people in dangerous situations Providing other information (including educational uses) Animals are used as test subjects to verify that new drugs, food additives, and the like are safe before they are tested on humans. If this type of use were abolished, more tests would need to be performed on humans without benefit of prior testing on animals. THE ANIMAL RIGHTS MOVEMENT consists of people with varying beliefs. Rational dialogue may be impeded if animal rights advocates demonize all scientists as sadists and psychopaths, or if science researchers demonize all animal rights advocates as terrorists. DO ANIMALS HAVE RIGHTS? Some animal advocates recognize that animals have "rights" from a deontological perspective, including the right to go on living and the right to live their life as they wish. Other animal advocates use utilitarian principles to say that animals' interests must be considered side by side with human interests. In evaluating the rights of animals versus those of people (or the amount of harm done to animals versus harm done to people), one can either treat animals as less important than people or one can treat them as equally important. Some animal rights advocates have said that anyone who does not afford animals equal standing with people in such decisions is guilty of SPECIESISM. People who argue against animal rights point out that animals cannot make moral decisions or enter into voluntary agreements. If we do not prosecute predators for killing their prey, then we really don't recognize that the prey have any rights. Nearly all people recognize that humans have a moral obligation to minimize pain and suffering to animals in their care. PARTICULAR ISSUES CONCERNING ANIMAL RIGHTS Fur clothing: Should animal furs be used as clothing? The rights of the animals to continue living must be balanced with the desire of some people to wear furs. Because many alternative forms of clothing exist, many people would place a low value on any human demand to wear fur clothing. Toxicology testing: Animals are used to help determine LD50 values. Is knowledge of these quantities sufficiently important to justify the pain and suffering of the animals, and the death of many of them, in the testing process? Testing of pharmaceuticals: The use of animals in testing drugs is often justified on the basis of human lives saved. This kind of justification judges the pain and suffering of animals to be of less importance than the pain and suffering of humans. Cosmetic testing: The Draize test has been widely criticized because it causes pain and suffering to animals in order to test new cosmetics or new batches or colors of cosmetics that have previously been tested. It has also been argued that information of equal usefulness could just as easily be obtained by other means (e.g., from external tests on the skins of human volunteers). IMPROVING THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS Both animal rights advocates and scientists have urged that we practice three R's: REDUCTION in the number of animals used; REFINEMENT in the amount of information obtained from each animal, including efforts to minimize repetition of experiments already performed by others; REPLACEMENT of live animals by bacteria or tissue cultures whenever possible. Government guidelines specify that animals be humanely treated and housed and that pain-killing medication be given wherever possible. Most research institutions now have committees to review all proposed experiments in which animal are to be used as test subjects. HUMANS AS EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS Humans as subjects can give certain types of results that animals cannot easily give: they can be asked how they feel; they can be given psychological tests, tests of perceptual ability, etc. Results based on human test subjects can more readily be applied to other humans than tests based on animals. Ethical guidelines require voluntary informed consent from all human subjects. Most research institutions have committees to evaluate all proposals in which people are used as test subjects. If results will be extrapolated to both sexes, testing should include test subjects of both sexes. ---------------------------------- Dec., 2003 PERMISSION IS HEREBY GRANTED to instructors who have adopted the book BIOLOGY TODAY for classroom use to download, modify, and use these notes as needed to aid them in in their teaching. Students of such instructors may likewise use and modify these notes as study aids.